Extract from The Arrogance of Power (1966) by William J. Fulbright Essay

Extract from The Arrogance of Power (1966) by William J. Fulbright - Essay Example In William J. Fulbright’s essay, the author lays his ideas in a logical way basing his arguments on both past and present events. The author also looks at the main factors behind the strength and the threat facing America by not only incorporating his opinions, but also using the facts and the personal researches. Thus, it is safe to say that Fulbright’s essay is successful as it gives several valid factors to support the author’s point of argument. First, the essay is successful because of its logical arrangement. The author looks at America in the past and America in the present. For example, in the author’s analysis of American history, he argues that America is deeply rooted in democratic institutions. Though the author is looking at the present situation of America, he looks into her history in order to justify her present situation. The historical analysis of America in comparison to other nations like Russia and Germany that rose and fell because of their desire to dominate the world makes the essay not focus on opinions, but rather documented and historical facts (Brown 252). By applying historical analysis of the world events and America, in particular, the author adds validity to his essay and his arguments appear more valid than if he had just embarked on discussing America’s failure. For this reason, it can be argued that the argument is logically valid because it gives readers a good reason to accept what the writer has put forward. Secondly, the author makes his essay successful through the tactical use of tone. The author’s tone is that of concern, and he sounds honest about the situation in America. He analyses the positive aspects of America and clearly highlights his fears for her. For example, Fulbright argues that America may be taking the steps by embarking on commitments such as peace solving irrespective of her intent. The author also highlights his concerns over America

Children Rights Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Children Rights - Essay Example The participation of children in the Convention on the Rights of the Child can effectively reinforce the implementation of CRC as such participation ensures that the voice of the children is heard all over the world. This international treaty recognizes the human rights of children and the CRC is best maintained when the children are able to express their views in matters that affect them. The CRC is essentially based on right of humans to survive and develop in the world and the governments are supposed to ensure the maximum possibility for the survival and development of the children. Child participation is perhaps the most effective means to ensure the rights of the children, although it is greatly challenging endeavor to make certain that children are able to take part in the conservation of the CRC. There are several factors that affect child participation in the CRC such as the traditional perceptions of childhood etc. However, the convention has given significant provision for the participation of children realizing that child participation in the CRC is essential for its effective implementation. â€Å"The convention sets forth basic standards for the treatment, protection, and participation of children in society and makes a claim for children’s equality with other children and with adults, even as it acknowledges that childhood is uniquely valuable in its own right. The Convention thus embodies claims for a mixture of protective, welfare, moral, and political rights, encapsulated by what has been termed the three p's of children's rights: provision, protection, and participation." (Hobbs, McKechnie, and Lavalette, 1999, p 37). Therefore, the participation of children in the Convention on the Rights of the Child has an essential role in the effective reinforcement of the CRC

Duhem and the Good Sense of the Physicist Essay Example for Free

Duhem and the Good Sense of the Physicist Essay This paper will examine Duhem’s good sense of a physicist. We will also succinctly discuss his reason behind this claim. To explain Duhem’s good sense of a physicist, different experiments involving systematic procedures will be inspected, and J. J. Thomson’s experiment on cathode ray tube is one of these experiments. Two hypotheses about electricity that received worldwide acknowledgement will also be discussed. The explanation of these hypotheses will further question Duhem’s claim on the good sense of a physicist. Jean Perrin’s contradictory presentation about the effectiveness of experiments in testing hypotheses contributes to the goal of this paper. The Good Sense The good sense of Physicist examined by Pierre Maurice Marie Duhem (1861-1916) can be used to determine very confusing and contradicting experimental results. He encouraged the use of this ‘good sense’ since there are discoveries that doesn’t require extensive experiments and the ‘good sense’ of the physicist will be the guide to solve a problem. Duhem argued that this is enough to accept a good and well-explained hypothesis. He also encouraged the revision of a claim to accommodate and balance a confusing experiment. However, this method is too ambiguous and irrational especially for those tests that needed extensive experimental guidance. The use of the good sense is too risky for future purposes. One good move that we can consider to refute Duhem’s claim about the good sense of a physicist is to examine the approach used by different scientists. Sir Joseph John Thomson’s (1856-1940) experiment on the cathode rays and the cathode ray tube prompted an innovative period in the field of electricity. This experiment led to the discovery of electrons and other subatomic particles, a breakthrough that enhanced the understanding of the composition and behavior of matters. Three different experiments were performed using these cathode ray tubes. Thomson first used magnetism to see if there is a chance that the negative charge will be separated from the cathode rays (Park). Further elaboration of this experiment led him to the conclusion that the negative charge and the cathode rays are inseparable. In his second experiment, his main objective was to know if the presence of an electric field would influence the projection and behavior of rays. He constructed a nearly perfect cathode ray vacuum because he believed that previous experiments failed because of the presence of different gaseous element in the air. With his subsequent procedures, he was able to prove that the electric field could really influence the movement of rays because these rays were deflected, signifying the track of the negative charge. Thomson’s third experiment involves the measurement of the charge-to-mass ratio of the cathode rays. He measured the amount of cathode rays that were averted due to the presence of a magnetic field. He also measured the amount of energy they have. His observation led him to conclude that either the particles were very light or greatly charged because the charge to mass ratio was more than a thousand times greater compared to a hydrogen ion. Thomson’s hypotheses were proven not just because of merely theorizing. He proved it because he followed a systematic procedure. His path was guided by previously known facts. He was also guided by the failures of earlier experiments. In 1913, there were two hypotheses that had gained universal acceptance. The first one states that electricity occurs in discrete fundamental units. The second hypothesis states that the magnitude of the negative charge is three times smaller than the smallest mass associated with the fundamental unit of positive charge. The development of these hypotheses was brought about by the continuous growth of awareness in electricity. The discovery of the Avogadro’s number, mle and e of the constituents of various electrical discharges, mle and e of gaseous ions, and the total charge of a mole of monovalent ions Ne gave rise to this outcome. Duhem should give importance to the experiment conducted that supports these hypotheses. According to Jean Perrin, hypothesis, in most cases, is both essential and productive (Soshichi). He explained it in terms of examining a machine. He said that we do not just study a machine by just considering the visible and tangible parts. We will go as far as our eyes can tell us if we only consider this. Aside from these visible parts, we also seek the properties of the hidden gears that can explain its evident motions. To explain this, we must relate the visible parts to the invisible parts. If it is outside our scope of understanding, we seek retribution by studying its components part. There we formulate our hypothesis. Because we have the intuitive intelligence needed in solving such complex problem, Perrin added, we were able to give rise to the doctrine of Atoms. Perrin’s method is mainly based on experimental foundations. We can divide Perrin’s experimental inquisition into two. The first division is consisting of checking whether the result of an experiment follows a given algebraic distribution. The second step involves using approximation of the coefficient of diffusion, which is vital for gaining the Avogadro number. According to Duhem, a physicist can never test an isolated hypothesis. A physicist can never leave the theory outside the door of the laboratory since a failed prediction or experimental test cannot tell a scientist where the error lies. It can only tell him to examine further the experiment and try not to commit the same mistake. In our modern times, a hypothesis is not valid unless it is tested. In this paper, we have succinctly discussed his reason behind this claim. To explain Duhem’s good sense of a physicist, different experiments involving systematic procedures was inspected, and J. J. Thomson’s experiment on cathode ray tube is one of these experiments. Two hypotheses about electricity that received worldwide acknowledgement were discussed. Jean Perrin’s contradictory presentation about the effectiveness of experiments in testing hypotheses contributes to the goal of this paper. The good sense amounted in this case is the rational way a physicists approach a problem. They used experiments to support their claim, not just downright theory. The good sense of a physicist accounts for his sense of creativity, how he develops his own way of obtaining an answer to a hypothesis. All of this is through experiments. Works Cited â€Å"Pierre Marie Maurice Duhem. † March, 2001. JOCEFR. 12 May, 2008 http://www-groups. dcs. st-and. ac. uk/~history/Biographies/Duhem. html. Park, John L. 1996. â€Å"J. J. Thomson’s Cathode Ray Tube†. 12 May, 2008 http://dbhs. wvusd. k12. ca. us/webdocs/AtomicStructure/Disc-of-Electron-Images. html. Ariew, Roger. 13 July, 2007. â€Å"Pierre Duhem†. 12 May, 2008. http://plato. stanford. edu/entries/duhem/. Soshichi, Uchii. 9 February, 2001. â€Å"Jean Perrin’s Book on Atoms†. 12 May, 2008. http://www. bun. kyoto-u. ac. jp/~suchii/perrin. html.

Opening A Burger King Franchise In Pakistan Tourism Essay

Opening A Burger King Franchise In Pakistan Tourism Essay Introduction Burger king is a well known brand of a fast food restaurant chain that operates globally. Founded in 1954, the burger king franchise has grown from its humble beginnings to a multibillion dollar empire over time and the business has gone beyond the borders f its country of origin and now it has franchise operations all over the world. However the character that embodies the brand, famously known as the king was developed and introduced in 1955 that grew to became an embodiment of the brand itself. Developing various versions for broiled beef lovers, the menu of burger king grew and so did its customer base. Owing to the immense success, the company decided to expand the business and franchises were granted in the year 1959 but the initial focus still remained on the western markets where there was a demand for and similarity with the cuisine that burger king offered but the first franchise restaurant to materialize outside the US was in Puerto Rico. Up till the year 1967, the company had already opened up 275 restaurants but further expansion required the private owners to cohort with the Pillsbury Company. Currently, the company is a publically traded company with Goldman Sachs Capital Partners, TPG Capital and Bain Capital as its major stockholders. It is one of the most well known brands on earth and it is hard to find a country where there is no burger king outlet, Pakistan happens to be one such country. However franchise operations are a very risky business for the franchisee, especially in the case of a foreign brand. A multitude of factors; both external and internal need to be addressed before a franchise can be launched. An analysis of external and internal factors needs to be done in the form of a prefeasibility study to test the waters before taking the plunge (Kotler, 2008). Pakistani Market Having remained under the Mughal rule for a long time, Pakistani cuisine consists of hot, spicy and rich curries that are consumed with rice or bread with a lot of herbs (Black, 2002). This makes Pakistani cuisine quite different from the Western one and therefore offers a challenge to any international franchise thinking to enter Pakistan. However it is not unusual to find famous fast food restaurants in Pakistan and travelers home sick for their local food will have no difficulty in finding international restaurant chains in the major cities of Pakistan (Singh, Brown,  Clammer,  Cocks and Mock, 2008). Various names like Pizza hut, McDonalds, KFC, Mr. Cod, Subway etc are household names for Pakistani city dwellers as well as they offer a break from the usual cuisine available at homes. According to reports, the real private consumption growth rate in Pakistan is expected to be much higher that its GDP by the year 2014 and therefore points towards the existence of various growth opportunities and international food companies such as Nestle and Unilever are doing extremely well (PRlog, 2010). Burger King provides a lot of support for its franchises and even plays a role in selecting the most appropriate site for the business. The employees are also given a training of a minimum of 70 days so that they are well equipped and knowledgeable about the companys operations. External Analysis: PESTLE Political Factors Even though Pakistan has had a history of political instability, upheaval throughout its history but the political factors that are relevant to a fast food business include health and Safety Guidelines, food labelling guidelines issued by the government that may be subject to change with a changing government. In Pakistan there are no well defined rules and regulations for monitoring the health standards of restaurants and there exist no labelling requirements as well. This presents easy operational conditions as well as the opportunity to define industry standards of the fast food business in Pakistan. The security situation in Pakistan is also a question mark because terrorist and angry mobs have often targeted international restaurant chains in Pakistan and a KFC outlet in Karachi was destroyed twice because of such a situation (Schlosser and Wilson, 2007). Economic Factors Economic considerations that will help in establishing the operations in Pakistan low set up costs for the franchise and the ability to tap into a growing market as the awareness of consumers regarding international brands increases. The added advantage that fast food carry is that consumers view that they are being offered fair value for the money they are paying. Additionally, the growing middle class consumers in the country who do not want to eat at small local joints but do not have the money to spend on a lavish restaurant are the best target market for burger king. Moreover, Pakistani government offers favourable investment terms and foreign investors are permitted to keep 100 % of the firms equity but they are subjected to the condition that a maximum of 60 % of the total equity or profits can be repatriated (SECP, 1984)  however the ever depreciating Pakistani currency may be a problem. However the double digit inflation remains to be the major threat as this would warrant an increase in prices that the consumers may not be willing to bear. Social Factors As the working middle class in the country is increasing, the lifestyles have become much busier than they were previously which has made the acceptance of fast food restaurants in the country easier. There is still lack of awareness of the concepts of healthy Eating and Obesity among the general population and Pakistani consumers are generally meat lovers which happen to be the speciality of burger king. Another added advantage it the homogeneity in taste across the major cities in the country which will be the target market. Fast foods are not viewed as poor mans food and eating out in an international chain is still regarded as a social activity for many families. It is the accepted religious and cultural norm to consume Halaal food only and the consumers expect the restaurants to offer such food. Technological factors Significant investment will have to be made in terms of developing the technology that meets the franchise agreement requirements. Involvement of technology in food here is relatively new and therefore it may be difficult to develop a supplier base in a short time and the company may have to rely on the parent company. Computer ordering or till system are relatively new here and therefore employees will need training to operate these systems and will represent a significant cost. Legal Restaurants in Pakistan are controlled and registered through the Pakistan Hotels Restaurants Act of 1976. According to this law, every restaurant must be registered and the owner must attach a certificate that verifies the medical fitness of the staff from the civil hospital of that area along with the application. Health, hygiene and comfort standards have aloe been defined in this law and the authority issues the certificate of registration and the license to operate at the same time though the firm may have to file a separate form for getting a license (SMEDA, 2009). In addition to the above mentioned act, there are various other food laws in Pakistan such as the West Pakistan Pure Food Ordinance, 1960 and covers topics that relate to the preparation and the sale of foods and violations are punishable by imprisonment and fine. Another law is the Cantonments Pure Food Act, 1966 which is applicable only in the cantonment areas. Pakistan penal code, 1860 also contains some clauses regarding adulteration of food or drink (Khan and Hafeez, 1999). Although the regulatory framework is in place, like many other unfortunate countries, these laws are not fully implemented and often exploited. Environmental Pakistan is located in such a terrain because of which the weather generally remains hot during most part of the year and the summers are harsh however the northern part of the country still receives a few good months of winter as well. Monsoon is also a regular visitor however, because of the lack of basic infrastructure; weather condition may cause problems for the consumers as is the recent case of flooding in Pakistan. To make the consumers comfortable, there is a need for proper air-conditioning, heating and selection of a location that is easily accessible despite harsh weather conditions. The environment protection Act of 1997 covers topics related to the protection, preservation, rehabilitation and progress of the environment, deterrence and control of pollution and endorsement of sustainable development (The Gazette of Pakistan, 1997). Internal Analysis: SWOT Strengths A major strength of this venture is the international brand name recognition of Burger king that will help access many demographic groups of the population and gain an easier acceptance in the market. In addition to this, the strong financial backing of the company is another major strength as there will be no hitches in setting up the required infrastructure and the international distribution channels of the company will serve as an added advantage for the franchise. The assembly line style of food preparation of the business is also very efficient while food safety is also given very high importance. Weaknesses A major weakness of this operation is that Burger King is mainly concentrated in the US while there is already established competition from other fast food joints, both local and international in the country and it may be hard to develop a consumer base. It basically relies on its franchisees to run its operations abroad. The major weakness of Burger king is that it offers a very high calorie unhealthy diet and as the trend for health consciousness increases globally, it runs the risk of a shrinking consumer base. Additionally, burgers and fast food snacks are not an everyday meal for the Pakistani consumer as the traditional local cuisine is quite different from what the burger king offers. The logo of the king that makes burger king so recognizable and is the basis of many advertising campaigns may not resonate well with the consumers as the local consumers may not be able to relate with it. Opportunities Since there are no burger king outlets operating in Pakistan, it is a great opportunity to introduce the Pakistani consumer to the King. There is an opportunity to take advantage of the experiences of the other fast food restaurants and not make the same mistakes that they did. In addition this, there is an opportunity available for the customization of the burger king menu to the local tastes so that consumers can accept it with ease which many international chains have done in Pakistan. There is room for new product development especially in the breakfast segment in Pakistan which may prove to be a competitive edge for the franchise. Since Pakistan is one of the emerging markets, the economy is still developing and therefore there exists great potential for those who are willing to make a long term investment commitment. Threats The security situation in the country remains the major threat to the franchise operations and makes them easy targets of terrorism and requires huge investments in security. The company will face intense competition from the pre established brands especially McDonalds and also from other ready to cook options such as KNs chicken etc. consumer eating habits are changing inevitably all over the world. Although consumers still consume fast food meals but this is an occasional event for most of the Pakistani consumers as they are still more dependent on the local or desi food as it is fondly referred to. Concluding Remarks Pakistan being one of the emerging markets holds huge potentials as well as high returns but also offers a considerable level of risk as well. Even though the market is huge and profitable, other factors such as the weak economy, political instability, and security threats and poor infrastructure make it impossible to launch operations at a massive scale. Since fast food is not the local cuisine, it may be hard to find consumers outside the major cities which considerably restrict the target market. However there are immense opportunities available as well which can be tapped into by using the most appropriate entry strategy and developing a strong exit strategy if the need arises.

Marketing Condoms to Teens is Ethical and Necessary :: Teen Sex

Is it ethical to market condoms to teenagers? Advertising catches the attention of everyone – both young and old – but seeking to â€Å"feast† on the most vulnerable – the young. With the young seeking adventure and wanting to learn and become experienced, they are captured by everything they see and hear, whether the information is ethical or unethical. Over the years, sex has become an important part of the media through advertising and sales in a world where sex is important. According to the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP), American children will view an estimated 360,000 advertisements that have sexual innuendos on television before graduating from high school. A line of condoms marketed towards teens makes critics wonder if they are conveying a message that condoms and sex are. Jimmie Hatz condoms hit the shelves in February of 2004. â€Å"Jimmie Hat† is an urban slang term for condom. According to the marketers of the condoms, Common Ground USA, they are just promoting safe sex. The marketing campaign targets the hip hop culture. The focus is primarily on minority communities where HIV and AIDS are spreading rapidly. "When you look at the numbers and the rate of infection continues to rise within the minority population, they're having sex," said Harry Terrell, CEO of Common Ground USA. "We say abstinence is the only way that you're going to be OK. But the fact of the matter is, we can't hide and think that they're going to stop having sex." To grab the attention of their targeted audience, the condoms are named "Great Dane" and "Rottweiler" and come in shiny wrappers decked out with a cartoon dog wearing a thick gold chain. They also feature three flavors: grape, strawberry and banana. Many popular rappers have recorded songs that use the phrase "jimmie hats" to refer to condoms. Quotes like "For Players Puttin’ in Real Work" and "Protect Ya Neck" are also printed on the wrapper. Packaging aside, the success of Jimmie Hatz will depend on reactions from the younger consumers that the condom is targeting. Terrell became interested in AIDS activism in 1996 after learning that a baseball player on a high school team he coached had been infected. Terrell has said that the condoms are a "full- blown effort on our part to save our community." Critics of the condoms say that Common Ground’s marketing tactics are sending teens the wrong message.

Jasmine Essay -- essays papers

Jasmine Bharati Mukherjee was born on July 27, 1940 in Calcutta, India. (Pradhan ) She was born into a wealthy family, which assisted her in her dream of becoming a writer. She lived in India, Europe, the United States, and Canada. Migrating to these countries that are so different from her place of birth enabled her to write very powerful novels on immigrant experiences. Mukherjee’s novels focus on exploring the migration and the feeling of alienation that is experienced by these immigrants. (Pradhan) Her works have explored such themes as isolation, sexism, discrimination, the mistreatment of Indian women, and exploring identities. In Bharati Mukherjee’s novel Jasmine, the character shows some similarities to the author, but there are many differences. Both were born in India, but Jasmine was not born into wealth. Jasmine does not have the same resources as Bharati, so it is harder for her to leave her home and to migrate to the United States. One of the similarities between Jasmine and the author is their drive to go after what they want and to not stop until they get it. Bharati’s drive is to become a writer, and Jasmine’s is to go to the United States. Another similarity is their struggle to find their identity when they migrate to the United States. This is one of the major themes in Jasmine. One important aspect about the novel Jasmine is that it is not written in chronological order. The novel is written as though the main character is remembering events out of sequence. The author employed this method of writing quite efficiently. It was not entirely confusing and it set a mood of anticipation of what is to come. The novel starts out when Jasmine is a young girl in India. She is consulting an astrol... ...arries his child. This is evidence that she is steering further away from her Indian values. Someone may say that Jasmine is about a victim struggling in America or that it is about an immigrant who has assimilated herself into becoming an American. I think it is a little bit of both. I think that the main theme of this novel is exploring identities. Jasmine’s struggle in America and her immigrant experience force her to explore within herself and to discover what she is capable of doing in life. Jasmine has many stages in her life. Even her name changes throughout the novel, becoming more American, which corresponded to the stages in her life. Jasmine went through a metamorphoses in this novel in which she had to suffer many terrible and some wonderful events in order to become the person that she is at the end of the novel when she leaves Bud to be with Taylor.

Tips on Writing Statement of Purpose for Graduate School

Tips on Writing Statement of Purpose and Personal Statement Essays for Graduate School and Fellowship Applications Examine samples written by other students. The Undergraduate Research Programs office on the 4th floor of Sweet Hall has a binder with sample statements of purpose for a wide variety of fields. You cannot take the binder out of the office, but there are comfortable chairs and you can read through the binder there. One thing you will notice: every student has a different history, different strengths and weaknesses, so there is no one way to write this type of essay. Arrange for individual editorial consultation.After you have absorbed the tips suggested here and you have developed some kind of draft, send an email to Renee Courey at [email  protected] edu with a Word attachment of your draft (with your name on it) along with days and times that you’re available, and either she or another associate will set up an appointment. Avoid doing this at the last minute. T he schedule may be booked, and very often essays need to be re-conceived or there are other major revisions. So, when you make an appointment, allow for plenty of time for follow-up meetings. You can also set up an appointment at the Stanford Writing Center – check with SWC on how to do this.Personal statements and statements of purpose are perhaps the most important parts of applications. There is little you can do to change your GPA or your curriculum vitae (the academic version of a resume), but these statements can be written in many different ways, emphasizing different aspects of your interests, goals, personality, and style. They present the unique qualities that make you the candidate that a committee wants to select, and a good statement of purpose can also affect those professors who will write letters of recommendation for you.Consequently, you need to pay particular attention to their composition. Admissions and approval committees have been known to accept candid ates with uneven academic records or reject otherwise excellent candidates on the basis of these statements. Essays for law school and medical school applications have their own unique characteristics. While many of the tips outlined here are useful for these essays, the demands of graduate school and fellowship essays are different. Law school and medical school essays are closer to the type of essay you wrote for undergraduate admissions.Admissions committees are not that interested in how much you know about law or medicine, since they don’t expect you to know very much, and research, while important to write about, is not as crucial as for graduate programs. For law, you are expected to demonstrate that you can reason and write, and that you have some kind of intellectual capacity and drive and a sense of human connections, and that you are motivated to become a lawyer. For medicine, you are expected to recount any experience with medicine (such as shadowing doctors), tha t you have compassion, in addition to demonstrating that you can reason and write.Again, the tips here are primarily directed at graduate school and fellowship essays, and if you are interested in these professional schools you can extrapolate from these suggestions – and consult with the appropriate staff at UAP. Read the description of the essay carefully, and make sure that you answer the question in the way that it is worded. Pay attention to the word length indicated in the instruction and do not exceed it. These essays are usually very short, and you need to be concise and strategic about which interests or goals you decide to highlight.Do not try to â€Å"fudge† the prompt: answer the question as stated (although most will simply say something like â€Å"Write a short statement of purpose†). Some fellowship applications may require a personal statement that addresses concerns of the fellowship. For example, the Udall asks for an essay responding to Sen. U dall's speeches and writings concerning the environment, the Soros seeks a personal account of what it means to be a New American and how the Constitution and Bill of Rights affect your life, and the Truman asks a series of interlocking questions.Such essays call upon all your critical capacities to present an analysis, opinion or personal reflection, and they are similar to other essays you have written in college. Statements of purpose are required of all fellowship and graduate school applications. These essays require you to describe clearly your interests, your proposed intellectual projects leading towards major research or dissertation, as well as your plans for the future. They are the committee's introduction to you as a scholar and potential colleague.A statement of purpose or interest is very different than the personal essay you wrote for undergraduate applications. It is NOT a general biographical sketch, nor is it primarily a personal reflection upon your decisions to enter a field, nor does it focus on your extracurricular activities (unless those activities pertain to your scholarly interests). You will not be asked something like â€Å"View a photograph and describe it. † Being a scholar, researcher or teacher will demand your best communication skills, so your essay should reassure the committee that you can communicate effectively and with a deep understanding of your field.You should write in a personable manner but this is somewhat different than writing a personal essay for undergraduate admissions. Keep in mind that you are writing to a particular audience, usually of faculty in your field (unlike your undergraduate admissions essay, which was directed to a general admissions committee). In other words, if you are applying for a chemistry PhD program, you will be addressing fellow chemists, for history, fellow historians, etc. If you are applying to an interdisciplinary program (e. g. History of Consciousness at Santa Cruz), your audience is a diverse group of scholars (literature, history, philosophy, etc. ) all united by a similar concern. If you are applying to a fellowship, your audience is liable to be more general or interdisciplinary. Be prepared to produce many drafts. These essays are among the most difficult pieces of writing you may do related to graduate school (other than your dissertation and your first job letter) because you must make so many strategic decisions on how to present yourself in such a short amount of space.Allow yourself a lot of time for drafts, and do not get frustrated because of the many times you will need to rewrite. Making multiple revisions is an inevitable part of the process. Show your drafts to faculty members, particularly those writing letters of recommendation, fellow students, and others. Accept criticisms with as little defensiveness as possible. On occasion you will get conflicting opinions on the presentation of your ideas and you will have to decide which dire ction to take.If you have a leading faculty mentor, you may defer to his or her opinion over others. The â€Å"trick† of this essay is to transform supplication into conversation, to change begging into exchange. Readers want to get a feeling of your intellect, and in a successful essay they will want to continue the discussion you’ve initiated, which they can only do if they admit you into their program. They will want you to be a part of their community of scholars because you have something to offer. They ask: â€Å"Would I be interested in talking to this student about her research over lunch? Concentrate on demonstrating what you know about your field and what you hope to accomplish in graduate school and even beyond. Is there a particular area of the field that you find interesting? What do you hope to contribute to the field? Avoid digressions. Demonstrate your knowledge of the field by making appropriate references to leading scholars, major writers, and curre nt debates or concerns, employing appropriate technical terminology. Avoid jargon that you believe is fashionable in order to appear flashy: most committees can tell superficial use of buzz words.You usually do not need to explain concepts in depth, since admission committees are usually already familiar with the field (although brief explanations for a more general reader may be necessary for fellowship applications). If you do write about an aspect of the field that may be somewhat unusual or controversial, your ability to briefly explain technical or theoretical aspects is a crucial component of how your essay is judged. You are not simply offering a summary of a field, so your ability to present your own arguments demonstrates how creatively you engage the entire field.Make concrete references to the program you are applying to and to the faculty you would like to study with. However, make sure these references are sufficiently broad so that you do not sound as if you want to st udy with just one person or have an excessively narrow interest in the field. You may not realize it, but that one person you want to study with may be on sabbatical for two years. Very often, the question is not whether or not you are capable, but whether or not you are a good â€Å"fit. So, don’t make your interest with the program so narrow as to allow any excuse for an awkward fit. Investigate the program – review their web site, talk to graduate students, visit in person, if you can – to discover its focus, how graduate students are involved in research, its â€Å"politics† vis-a-vis the field. Do not inadvertently position yourself on one or other side of a controversy within the department or field. Often, the discussion of the particular program is at the very end of the essay (which allows you to simply place the appropriate paragraph for each school).This is a regular convention of this genre, everyone expects it, and you do not need to worry b ecause you too write your essay this way. However, you can write it differently: references to a particular program can be woven into the body of the text, as well. This is far more difficult – and requires an original essay for each school – but it can be very effective. While you should discuss the particular area of your field from which you may develop a dissertation topic, do not present an overly detailed proposal of your anticipated dissertation.Most young scholars do not have their dissertation topics determined yet, and admission committees anticipate that. Many committees will regard a detailed description of a dissertation topic with suspicion, even deciding that a young scholar who has so determined his or her topic without advanced work is not open-minded enough to other influences in the field. One of the pleasures faculty have is in molding their graduate students. If you seem to have a closed mind, they may find this unappealing. However, if you do have areas of interest, you should explain them – just refrain from writing a detailed proposal.You are fashioning a â€Å"fictional† version of yourself. While your account is always based on truth, you have a great deal of freedom in constructing the image of who you are. You decide what goes in and what does not, and in what order. The notion that you are writing fiction can allow you some distance; the idea that this is â€Å"fiction† can free you up to be more creative and less uncomfortable that you are â€Å"baring your soul. † However you construct yourself, never lie. Not only is lying wrong, but lies are usually easily detected and self-defeating.Construct coherence. No matter how different your intellectual or other relevant experiences may be, seek out some way to bring everything together as a coherent whole. This is tricky and difficult – but everything can be described as part of one sort of process or development or another; there are a lways underlying connections. Trying to determine these questions is an excellent topic for brainstorming with other people who can see you more clearly because they have more distance. Techniques for writing drafts.There are many ways to open your essay, many choices on the order in which to present your involvement in the field, many different aspects of your academic career to highlight. However, many people get hung up on producing an exciting opening. In your initial drafting process, experiment with presenting yourself and highlighting your interests in many different ways before settling on which approach is most compelling. One technique is to write separate, independent paragraphs or groups of sentences describing different aspects of your work (such as your research projects) or experiences without worrying about how they connect or flow.At least in this way you can begin to articulate the important elements of your essay and you have material to work with. You can experim ent by avoiding any opening and writing the body of your essay; or you can experiment with trying to write one short paragraph that concisely says everything. Be playful in your experiments before you settle on one approach. Openings. Openings tend to get people hung up. Everyone wants to make a good, first impression. But, often, once someone sets upon an opening, it tends to shape the rhetorical flow of the rest of the essay, even distorting the essay.One suggestion is NOT to have an opening but simply to start – avoid the high-stake gambit altogether. An opening that uses an anecdote about your interest in the field is very popular. It can be very effective, and it’s a common way that people can express their interests. But it’s so popular that it may come across as trite, unless it is a very powerful, appropriate anecdote, and it must be short. (Often, people need to write an anecdote in order to get themselves going, and when the anecdote is done, take a lo ok at what happens next: that may, in fact, be your opening. Opening with a personal narrative (e. g. , how I became passionate about this subject) can be effective, but, again, this approach is very popular and even overdone (â€Å"When I was six I was hit on the head at the playground, and ever since then I’ve wanted to be a neuroscientist†). If you do use personal narrative, make it very brief and to the point. Don’t spend half your essay relating a story. Another popular approach is to present a chronology of your development. While a chronological account may be tempting – and may be necessary for you to do at an early stage of writing – it is a fairly ow-level rhetorical mode. Another possibility is to open with at the most sophisticated level of your development, such as the advanced research or honors thesis you are currently completing, and then describe how you got to that point in the field. Often, an analysis of some aspect of your rese arch interest or of your own development can provide you with a way to discuss your overall development. Present your interests according to an underlying theme, framing idea or argument that then draws from the history of your involvement to illustrate your idea.No matter how different your activities may be, you can draw a coherent picture of your development. At first you may not think that climbing Mount Everest connects readily to a doctorate in mechanical engineering or medieval studies – but if presented the right way, it could. Don’t reject any experience out of hand. And don’t leave out things which you think are obvious. For example, your honors thesis or research may show up on your c/v, but you give the meaning or â€Å"spin† to that reality in your essay.Do not present a complete list of courses in the field you have taken or an undifferentiated, comprehensive description of your interest. You will need to make strategic decisions on how you present your interest, deciding what is primary, secondary, etc. , and making such decisions may be difficult, even painful. You will have a transcript in your application, so you don’t need lists that don’t â€Å"spin† explanations. Address any anomalies in your transcript. If you have any lapses, unusual low grades, withdrawals or anything else that seems strange, explain them in as non-defensive a way as possible.For example, the fact that the first two years of college you were a mediocre student until you discovered your intellectual passion or you withdrew from classes one quarter because of illness or family problems. If you spent time in jail or joined a guerrilla army, you need to figure out how to explain your history. In many respects, you do not need to explain everything – and some things may be none of an admissions committee’s business – but you do need to say something. If you do not explain the situation, your readers will i nvent explanations for themselves – and their fantasies will probably be far worse than the reality.Avoid excessive, unreasonable enthusiasm. Extreme effusion backfires. For example, statements such as â€Å"I love 19th century British literature so much that I feel that I live in the 19th century† or â€Å"I AM Nietzsche† or â€Å"I live and breathe sea urchins† suggest possible psychosis, not reasonable enthusiasm. For the most part, exclamation points should be avoided. Check your writing style for unconscious attempts at forced sincerity or authenticity. This is a form of â€Å"begging† and it’s tough to spot, since you often don’t see if for yourself.For example, check to see if your adjectives are excessive (â€Å"I took an amazing/astounding/awesome class†). Often, no adjective is fine or a more restrained one has a better effect. Review â€Å"triples† or â€Å"doubles† to see if they are indeed necessary a nd reveal important information. For example, if the flow of rhetoric has you saying â€Å"I am dedicated, hard working, and committed,† you should note that dedicated and committed are almost identical and the repetition has the effect of undermining your sincerity. The reader gets a subliminal message flashing of â€Å"Baloney! Don’t follow rhetorical flow; follow the logic of your underlying coherence. Be conscious of inflammatory or biased language. You may hold strong opinions about the field or be motivated by particular causes. Do not mask your opinions, but be aware of presenting yourself in a tactful, judicious fashion. You can express various views in such a way as to present yourself as having an opinion yet remaining open-minded. You want to avoid coming across as an extremist or as a crank that cannot enter a dialogue with others. No jokes.Humor and sarcasm depend upon a shared field of reference – and you have no idea if you and your readers have such a mutual understanding. Most of the time, self-deprecating humor comes across as simply deprecating yourself, and sarcasm can easily be misunderstood. One student who spent ten years working as a writer for situation comedies refrained from using humor: if she refrained – and she knows the business – you can too. This doesn’t mean that you should be leaden or dull, but avoid jokes or smirks or a wise-guy tone. Do not write what you think the committee wants to read.Be yourself. Often, applicants believe they should write according to some image of proper â€Å"academic† seriousness or style. Your personal style and passion should shine through the essay. Although this is a formal essay and you should avoid slang or overly casual constructions, its tone should be engaging, even personable (though not personal). Poofread the essay, roofpread the essay, prufreed the essay. Have your friends proofread it. While this is not a grammar test, excessive typos and other mechanical errors indicate poor work habits and do not make a good impression.Most admissions committees allow one typo (such as â€Å"to† for â€Å"too†), but when the typos start adding up you’re sending a bad message. After all this advice and warning, keep in mind that this is actually an exciting process. Perhaps for the first time in years you are attempting to present a coherent intellectual portrait of yourself. In the process you may actually gain a clearer vision of your interests and goals – and feel even more confident that graduate study is the direction you want to go. Contact the URP office for editorial review.We will be glad to review your essay at any stage of the process. As you can tell, this is more than a narrowly defined writing process, so we may ask you questions about your interests, your academic career, and other pursuits to see if additional experiences should be included. We’re not trying to be nosey, but st udents often leave out aspects of themselves that they think are obvious or not important when in fact they are very valuable. Adapted from original text by Hilton Obenzinger  © Copyright 2005 Stanford University.